What drives methane emissions from onsite sanitation containment units?

Lessons from an empirical study in four countries

Abstract

Onsite sanitation coverage has expanded significantly since 2020, driven by global commitments to eliminate open defecation and the need for adaptable solutions in rapidly urbanising small- and medium-sized cities (<1 million inhabitants) in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Currently, 53% of individuals with access to a toilet depend on onsite sanitation systems. Despite this prevalence, the contribution of greenhouse gas emissions from household-level excreta storage to climate change remains poorly quantified due to limited empirical evidence. We addressed this gap by conducting direct measurements of methane emissions from 146 onsite sanitation containment units locally referred as pit latrines, holding tanks and septic tanks, across Senegal, Ethiopia, Uganda and Nepal. Methane emission rates exhibited strong skewness with a geometric mean of 7.9 g CH₄ capita⁻¹ day⁻¹, indicating that onsite sanitation containment units alone may account for approximately 3.8% of global anthropogenic CH₄ emissions.